Vitamin K is produced by bacteria in the gut or consumed in the diet. It is an essential cofactor for the blood clotting process and for maintaining bone health. Although vitamin K1 is abundant in green, leafy vegetables, vitamin K2 is less common in the Western diet. Several observational studies have found that vitamin K2, but not vitamin K1, lowers the risk of heart disease, improves calcium regulation, and reduces the risk of osteoporosis.

While vitamin D3 ensures that blood calcium levels are stable and able to meet your body’s needs, vitamin K regulates calcium by activating osteocalcin, a protein that promotes calcification of bone while also preventing calcium accumulation in tissues such as the kidneys and blood vessels.

Ultraviolet B rays from the sun penetrate the skin and convert 7-dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), a precursor to the active form of vitamin D. The amount of vitamin D produced in the skin by UV light can range from 10,000 to 25,000 IU. Vitamin D produced by UV light exposure may last twice as long in the blood as vitamin D obtained from food. Vitamin D3 is converted to 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (calcidiol) in the liver. Calcidiol is the storage form of the vitamin. It is stored in fat until it is needed. 25 hydroxy-vitamin D is then converted to 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D (calcitriol) in the kidney or locally by immune cells.

Vitamin 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D is the active form of vitamin D. Vitamin D receptors can also be found on immune cells. Vitamin D can influence both the innate and adaptive immune systems.

Zinc is an essential mineral involved in over 300 chemical reactions. It is the second most abundant trace mineral in your body, after iron. Your body does not produce zinc, so it must be obtained through your diet or supplements. Zinc is a cofactor that supports chemical reactions involved in carbohydrate and protein metabolism and copper-zinc superoxide dismutase antioxidant activity.

Vitamin C is an antioxidant that can help neutralize free radicals and may deactivate histamine. Quercetin, dihydroquercetin (DHQ), and rutin are active bioflavonoids that help protect your body against inflammation and oxidative damage from hyperimmune reactions. N-Acetylcysteine is the precursor to the powerful antioxidant glutathione. Stinging nettle and bromelain reduce inflammation.